Tugas

MESSAGE DESIGN FOR TEXT
An instructional unit—whether a textbook, printed manual, computer-based instruction, multimedia instruction, or video recording—is an artifact of the design process that will endure (Simon, 1981). This artifact represents the interface or interaction between the learner and the instructional materials. In Simon’s terms, the artifact will serve its purpose if it is appropriate for the learner. Thus, our task as designers is to create an appropriate interface between the instructional materials and the learner. One part of this process is to design the message so that it is communicated effectively. In this section, we consider how we can design the message by manipulating the text (e.g., structure of the writing) and the typography.
After analyzing science textbooks, Chambliss and Calfee (1989) concluded that there are three critical design elements essential to good printed instruction. First is a set of distinctive elements such as words or typography that signal the structure of the text to the learner. For example, in this book the words at the beginning of each chapter signal the structure of the text through an overview and a series of questions. The headings signal the structure of the chapter. You might also use italic type to signal key words or phrases. Second is the coherence of the text structure, which aids the organization and recall of information. We can affect this structure by using redundancy and familiar words and phrases. Third, there must be a match between the content and the learner’s background if the learner is to comprehend the text. Other research also supports the notion that we can affect learners’ cognitive processes by the way we design the message (Britton & Gulg ¨ oz, ¨ 1991; Jonassen, 1982; Mannes, 1994; Schraw, Wade, & Kardash, 1993). Similarly, Wiley and Voss (1999) suggested that the amount of information learners retain from the instruction is dependent on the ‘‘considerateness’’ of the text. Let’s examine how we can manipulate or structure the text tocommunicate the schema or topic structure to the learner.
Signaling the Text‘s Schema When learners are presented with a signal that identifies the text’s structure, they can use this information to form a model of expectations that will aid their comprehension (Mannes, 1994). Signals can be global or local in nature (Lemarie, Lorch, Eyrolle, & Virbel, ´ 2008). Global signals work together and are part of the overall design, such as the heading on each page of a textbook that, typically, states the chapter name or section name and page number. The heading and page numbers appear on each page; thus, they are global in nature. Similarly, some computer and technical books use icons for warnings, cautions, or tips that may not appear on every page but are used throughout the materials. These icons work together to signal the structure of the text and share common properties as global signals. Global signals can be thought of as a system; they are consistent and used throughout the material, whether it is print, a web page, or a computer-based instruction unit. An individual heading, such as ‘‘Signaling the Text’s Schema’’ above, is local in nature and provides a signal to the text that follows. As the learner encounters new information, this information is placed within the existing model.
The preinstructional strategies described in the first part of this chapter are one means of signaling the overall structure of the text, through headings and typographical layout. AnotherAnother approach is to alert the learner to specific information within a paragraph or section of the material. For example, how can you alert the reader that six different tools are needed to complete a task or that a particular paragraph will compare RAM memory to ROM memory? Armbruster (1986) identified five common text structures that a designer can use to signal important text for the learner:
• Lists of items or ideas, which are in no significant order. Examples of lists in instructional materials could include the safety clothing and equipment one needs when working with hazard chemicals or the instruments needed to extract a tooth.
• Comparisons or contrasts of ideas or objects. In training for police personnel, we might need to contrast the differences between plastic explosives and an explosive device made with ammonium nitrate. Similarly, a course on corporate finance might compare two methods of cost accounting.
• Temporal sequences connected by time or specific sequences. The steps for testing and replacing an automobile battery or for cleaning a wound are examples of temporal sequences of events.
• Cause-and-effect structures or explanations. These structures describe the relationship between two ideas or events. That is, one idea or event is explained as a result of the second. Consider, for example. instructional materials for mortgage processors that describe how the prime interest rate set by the Federal Reserve affects mortgage interest rates. An instructional unit on crude oil production explains the relationship between well-pipe diameter and maximum flow rate through the pipe.
• Definition and example structures. These are used to teach concepts by defining the concept and then offering examples of it. An example concept in a biology textbook is a capillary. Similarly, a concept in a database management training manual is a relational database.
Once the designer has identified the different topic structures in the instruction, the task is to signal these structures to the learner. These signals do not add new content to the text; rather, they provide emphasis to the structure or message the designer wishes to convey (Meyer, 1985; Lorch, Lemarie, & Grant, 2011a). There are two methods for ´ signaling these structures. First is through explicit statements that alert the learner to the structure. For example, we have signaled this list of two items first by mentioning that there are two methods and then by starting the sentences with first and second. Second is through typographical conventions that signal the structure through change. Examples of typographical signals are the use of boldface or italic type and spacing (e.g., indenting and vertical space).

Explicit Signals
Probably the most common method of explicit signaling is through the use of what Meyer (1985) calls ‘‘pointer words.’’ These words, such as ‘‘There are two methods... ,’’ alert the learner to what to expect in the following sentence, paragraph, or chapter. By combining Meyer’s pointer words with Armbruster’s (1986) content structures, we can create a table of explicit signals used as part of the message design process (i.e., Table 8-2).
Table 8-2 provides a general guide for manipulating your textual information to signal important points for the learner. It is important that you use signals wisely and not overload the learner. Using too many signals on a page, whether in printed or electronic text, can result in too much distraction, with the learner failing to identify what is important. A second method for signaling the structure of the text is through the use of typography.
Typographical Signals
With the increased availability and ease of use of desktop publishing, the instructional designer now has greater control over the use of typographical signaling when creating instructional materials. We can use typography to signal the structure of the text by


Roman numerals I, II, III, and so forth and the second level would include the capital letters A, B, C, and so forth. In contrast, sequentially organized headings communicate information about the ordered flow of ideas rather than topics. Sequential headings facilitate faster searches, while hierarchical headings help the learner construct a better understanding of the text. Your choice of heading style depends on the intended outcomes of the instruction and the current and future use of the materials. For example, if the primary purpose of the text is instructional in nature (i.e., the learner will master the content and seldom need to refer back to the materials after the instruction), then a hierarchical heading structure would be better. However, if your course is focused on a task such as teaching Excel and the learner might well be expected to use the printed materials as a reference, then sequential organizational headings would be more appropriate.
We have found that most instructional materials need two or three levels of headings. A heading level corresponds to the different levels in an outline you might use for writing a paper. For example, first-level headings would correspond to the points listed as Roman numerals I, II, III, and so forth.
Second-level headings would correspond to the A, B, and C points under each of the Roman numeral headings. The third level of headings would correspond to the points under the 1, 2, and 3 points under the A, B, and C headings.
Each level of heading has a different typographical design. For example, in an early draft of this book’s manuscript, the first-level headings were in 18-point boldface type and centered on the line with each word capitalized. The second-level headings were left-justified (i.e., flush against the left margin) and in 14-point boldface type with each word capitalized. FinallyFinally, the third-level headings were indented with only the first word capitalized and printed in boldface. This style is similar to the one specified by the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (APA, 2010) for writing articles and works well for manuscripts or documents that are desktop published.
To design headings for instructional materials, we suggest that you start with the objectives for the unit. Often, the objectives can function as the first-level headings. HoweverHowever, we do not recommend using the objective statement as the heading; rather, we suggest a key word or short phrase that describes the focus of the objective. The second-level headings will signal the major ideas or steps needed to achieve the objectives. For complex content, you may want to also add a third level of heading that identifies specific ideas, tasks, or concepts in the unit. Next, you will need to select a typographical style that signals the heading. If you look through a number of books, magazines, and instructional materials, you will find a variety of styles used to identify the various levels. Your style should be easily recognizable by the learner. For example, using left-justified headings and only subtle changes in type size (e.g., 14 -, 12-, and 11-point) might be a unique typographical design, but it may be confusing to the learner. The design specified in the APA publication manual is a good starting point, with minor variations used to make your document unique. A unique approach that does not signal the changing level of headings for the learner is likely to result in ineffective communication of the structure of the information.
If a graphic designer designs your materials, you may want to meet with this individual before you start developing your materials and seek his or her input on the design. In some instances, you may not have any decision-making authority on the typographical design of the final document. For example, a textbook author seldom has any input in the actual typographical design of the book. But an instructional designer working in industry may have total control. Similarly, many graphic designers and editors are requesting that authors (including instructional designers) use a style template that assigns a specific style to text and graphics in a document. The graphic designer can then take the disk copy of the manuscript and easily create a layout on a personal computer by assigning different typographical styles
(e.g., boldface, italics, type size, and spacing) to the document. This process can greatly streamline the production process and reduce the cost of materials.
Layout A designer can also use the layout of the page to signal the structure of the information. For example, you can divide the page into vertical spacing and horizontal spacing, which graphic designers refer to as ‘‘white space.’’ By increasing the number of lines or points between a heading and the previous and next paragraphs, you can emphasize the heading. Similarly, you can indent a list of items from the left margin to signify that the items are grouped together.
Typographical Variations Another means of signaling the structure of the information is by varying the type—adding boldface, italics, or a change in type size—to create a variation in the pattern of the page. Out of curiosity, the human eye is drawn to this difference. ThusThus, type variations are used to signal important words and new information (Hartley, 1994; Lorch, Lemarie, & Grant, 2011b). There are three factors to consider when using ´ typographical variations. First, using too many variations on a page can overwhelm the reader, making it difficult to determine what is important. Second, the use of a single variation must be consistent throughout your materials. For example, you should not use boldface to identify new terms in one part of a document and then switch to italics for this same function in another part. Decide on how you will use variations, if any, before you start writing, and then be consistent. Third, the mixing of different typefaces or fonts on a page requires an understanding of concord and contrast in typography. Designers who lack experience in typography should avoid mixing typefaces and should rely primarily on the use of boldface, italics, and size variations of one type font to signal the structure of the text.

Text Structure Example

Signaling Words

Lists The following items are essential for a weeklong raft trip ...

Humans have five senses. First is ... First, second, third, etc.;
subsequent; another
Comparison or crontrast
A sole proprietorship is a business that is owned by one individual and typically managed by the owner. In contrast, a
corporation is owned by a few to several thousand individuals and is incorporated under the laws of one of the fifty states.


A prime number is divisible by itself and 1, whereas a composite number is divisible by at least one other whole number in addition to itself and 1.
But, in comparison, however,
while, to differentiate, a distinguishing

Temporal sequence
Hold down the Command key while pressing S to save the document.

Finally, switch the main breaker to ‘‘on’’ and close the fuse box door. Beginning with, after, next,
then, first, second, etc.

Cause and effect
If the application works properly with the startup files off, then there is probably a conflict with a startup file.

One result of increased recycling is the development of new industries to convert these items into new products.
Consequently, as a result,
if/then, the reason, one
explanation
Definition and example


Are items or resources of value that are owned by an individual or business. Examples of assets include cars, buildings, homes, furniture, and computers.

Hibernation is a period of inactivity in cold-blooded animals. AnimalsAnimals that hibernate include snakes, rodents, and bees. For example, include, another