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  1. Cause and effect
  2. Definiton and example
  3. Temporal sequance

identifying changes in topic, and we can signal important words, phrases, and ideas by
making them look different from the surrounding text. Let’s examine how we can use
headings, layout, and typographical variations to signal the learner.
Headings Authors use headings to signal a change of topic and to provide the learner
with a picture of how the materials are organized. The use of headings to signal changes of
topic is prominent even in electronic documents. The tags used to create web pages for the
Internet provide six different levels of headings for a web document (see examples of two
of these heading levels in Figure 8-1).
Headings are key words or short phrases that identify the content of the sections of
text information. Headings can emphasize either a sequential organization of topics or a
hierarchical organization (Lorch et al., 2011a). Headings that communicate a hierarchical
organization would be similar to an outline in that first level of heading would include the



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